The Art of Calligraphy

When we speak of “Turkish Calligraphy,” we refer to aesthetic writing based on the letters of the Arabo-Persian alphabet, which the Turks adopted after their conversion to Islam. The process by which the Arabo-Persian alphabet acquired its aesthetic characteristics was slow at first, but from the mid-eighth century CE that process began to accelerate. By the time the Turks joined the Islamic world (ca. tenth century CE), calligraphy was already an established art form.

The Arabic alphabet was adopted by virtually all of the peoples who converted to Islam in the Middle East over the first five centuries of Islam (7-12 centuries CE). Because of the common usage of the Qur’an, written in Arabic, the alphabet spread throughout most of the Muslim world. “Arabic Calligraphy,” a term appropriate to the early period, developed over time into what might be described as “Islamic Calligraphy” as the Arabic alphabet was adapted to the Persian, Turkish, Tatar, and Hindustani languages.

In time, this early writing evolved into two forms. One was a sharply angled form reserved for the Qur’an and important correspondence. This form became known as kufic, because it was said to have originated and flourished in the city of Kufa. The other form, more rounded and flexible, nasta?liq, could be written more quickly and was used for day-to-day purposes. During the Abbasid caliphate (8-13 centuries CE) learning and the arts flourished, leading to an increased demand for books in Baghdad and in other major cities. This increased the number of copyists and stationers also.

From the end of the eighth century CE the practice of calligraphy developed in accordance with specific proportions and symmetries. The outstanding calligrapher of this period was an Abbasid vizier, Ibn Muqla (d. 940 CE), who established rules of proportioned and ordered writing. This script was the prototype for the muhaqqaq, rayhani, and naskh scripts. Ibn al-Bawwab at the beginning of the eleventh century CE amended the rules established by Ibn Muqla. Finally in the thirteenth century CE Baghdad, Yaqut al-Musta’simi developed the methods of thuluth, naskh, muhaqqaq, rayhani, tawqi’, and riqa’, known together as the ahkam al-sitta. He also developed the technique of cutting the nib of the reed pen at an angle instead of straight across, which enabled the calligrapher to write more elegantly.

At the end of fifteenth century CE, with the Ottoman state established in Istanbul, the calligrapher Seyh Hamdullah started the history of calligraphy in Ottoman Turkish, which still continues today. Seyh Hamdullah began by emulating the best works executed in the style of Yaqut al-Musta’simi. Encouraged by his patron and student, Sultan Bayezid II, he developed a new style of calligraphy, which was emulated for more than 150 years. Then in the middle of the seventeenth century CE, Hafiz Osman, a genius in calligraphy from Istanbul, streamlined this style. His Qur’ans were famous throughout the Islamic world. Turkish calligraphy continued with Ismail Zuhdi, his brother Mustafa Rakim, Mahmud Celaleddin, Carsambali Haci Arif Bey, Nazif Bey, Omer Vasfi, his brother Emin Yazici, Sami Efendi, Bakkal Arif, Fehmi Efendi, Kamil Akdik, Ismail Hakki Altunbezer, Halim Ozyazici, Hulusi Yazgan, Necmeddin Okyay, Hasan Riza Efendi, and Hamid Aytac. As a result of this gifted lineage of Turkish calligraphers, there is a common adage that “the Qur’an was revealed in the Hijaz, was best recited in Egypt, and is best written in Istanbul.”

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